BIOLOGY LESSON NOTE ON HUMAN KIDNEY

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Lesson Note on the Human Kidney Topic: The Human Kidney Duration: 40 minutes Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to: Define the kidney and state its location in the human body. Identify and describe the structure and functions of the kidney. Explain the processes involved in urine formation (filtration, reabsorption, and secretion). Describe how the kidney contributes to homeostasis. Identify common kidney-related diseases and how to prevent them. Evaluate the importance of maintaining kidney health. Lesson Content: 1. Introduction to the Human Kidney The kidneys are vital organs in the human body responsible for filtering waste from the blood and regulating water and electrolyte balance. They are part of the excretory system and play a crucial role in homeostasis. Location: The kidneys are located in the abdominal cavity, on either side of the spine, just below the rib cage. Each kidney is bean-shaped and about the size of a fi...
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Chemistry Lesson Note On Solubility and Solubility Curves – Calculations and Interpretation

Topic: Solubility and Solubility Curves – Calculations and Interpretation

Class: SS1

Specific Objectives:

By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

  1. Define solubility and saturated solutions.
  2. Explain factors affecting solubility.
  3. Interpret solubility curves.
  4. Calculate solubility of substances from experimental data.
  5. Apply solubility concepts in real-life situations.

Instructional Materials:

  • Beakers, measuring cylinders
  • Solids like potassium nitrate or copper(II) sulfate
  • Thermometer
  • Graph paper
  • Pre-drawn solubility curves
  • Stirring rods, balance, water bath

Lesson Content:

Step 1: Meaning of Solubility

Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in 100 g of solvent (usually water) at a specific temperature to form a saturated solution.

Saturated solution: A solution in which no more solute can dissolve at a given temperature.

Step 2: Factors Affecting Solubility

  1. Temperature:

    • For most solids, solubility increases with temperature.
    • For gases, solubility decreases as temperature increases.

  2. Pressure:

    • Affects solubility of gases (solubility increases with pressure).

  3. Nature of solute and solvent:

    • “Like dissolves like” – polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents.

Step 3: Interpreting Solubility Curves

A solubility curve is a graph that shows how the solubility of a substance changes with temperature.

How to read a solubility curve:

  • Point on the curve: Saturated solution
  • Point below the curve: Unsaturated solution
  • Point above the curve: Supersaturated solution

Example: If the curve of KNO₃ shows that 40 g dissolves in 100 g of water at 30°C, then:

  • 35 g at 30°C → Unsaturated
  • 45 g at 30°C → Supersaturated

Step 4: Sample Calculations

Example 1:
Find the solubility of potassium nitrate if 15 g dissolves in 50 g of water at 40°C.

Solution:
Convert to solubility per 100 g of water:


\frac{15}{50} \times 100 = 30 \, \text{g per 100 g of water}

Example 2:
From a solubility curve, 60 g of salt dissolves at 60°C, but only 40 g dissolves at 30°C. How much salt crystallizes out if the solution cools from 60°C to 30°C?

Solution:
60 g − 40 g = 20 g crystallizes

Step 5: Practical Applications of Solubility

  • Pharmaceuticals: Correct drug dosage requires knowledge of solubility.
  • Food industry: Sugar and salt dissolution.
  • Environmental science: Solubility affects pollution and water purification.
  • Crystallization: Used to purify solids in chemistry labs.

Evaluation:

  1. Define solubility.
  2. What is a saturated solution?
  3. How does temperature affect the solubility of solids?
  4. Describe how to read a solubility curve.
  5. If 25 g of salt dissolves in 50 g of water at a certain temperature, what is its solubility per 100 g of water?

Homework:

  1. Plot a solubility curve from the following data:
Temperature (°C) 20 30 40 50 60
Solubility (g/100g H₂O) 10 15 20 30 40

  1. From the graph, answer:
    a. What is the solubility at 45°C?
    b. At what temperature does the solubility equal 25 g?

  2. Explain what happens when a saturated solution is cooled.

Conclusion:

Solubility and solubility curves are important for understanding how substances dissolve in solvents under various conditions. This knowledge is applied in industries, laboratories, and even in daily life.

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